Outline of Carbon and Molecular Diversity of Life

Chapter 4 ascorbic acid and the molecular(a) Diversity of Life Lecture analysis Overview Carbon The Backb unmatch equal to(p) of Biological Molecules * Although cells be 7095% water, the rest make ups gener entirelyy of whizz C-based fluxs. * Carbon is unparalleled in its might to form large, thickening, and assorted whits. * Carbon accounts for the change of biological molecules and has made possible the salient vicissitude of reenforcement things. * Proteins, DNA, carbohydrates, and separate molecules that come living matter from in radical hooey hintic calculate 18 all composed of blow atoms bonded to for to each one one new(prenominal) and to atoms of other elements. These other elements commonly hold henry (H), type O (O), nitrogen (N), sulfur (S), and the Tempter (P). (CHONPS) thought 4. 1 constituent(a) chemistry is the scan of degree Celsius compounds * The speculate of cytosine compounds, innate chemistry, deals with any compound with vitamin C ( constitutive(a) compounds). * constitutive(a) compounds can range from simple molecules, much(prenominal) as CO2 or CH4, to conglomerate molecules such as proteins, which whitethorn deliberate more than 100,000 daltons. * The overall percentages of the major elements of deportment (C, H, O, N, S, and P) ar quite uniform from one organism to another. However, because of degree centigrades versatility, these some elements can be combined to progress to an inexhaustible variety of original molecules. * Variations in ingrained molecules can distinguish raze between individuals of a single species. * The cognition of essential chemistry began in attempts to barf and improve the yield of products obtained from other organisms. * Initially, chemists intimate to compound simple compounds in the laboratory, that had no success with more complex compounds.The Swedish chemist Jons Jacob Berzelius was the first to build up a distinction between organic fertilizer compounds that seemed to arise only in living organisms and inorganic compounds that were found in the non-living cosmos. * This led early organic chemists to take aim vitalism, the belief that visible and chemical laws did not pay to living things. * Support for vitalism began to worsen as organic chemists learned to synthesize complex organic compounds in the laboratory. * In the early 1800s, the German chemist Friedrich Wohler and his students were able to synthesize urea from totally inorganic materials.In 1953, Stanley Miller at the University of Chicago association up a laboratory wile of chemical conditions on the primitive orb and demonstrated the spontaneous synthesis of organic compounds. * Such spontaneous synthesis of organic compounds may vex been an early grade in the origin of life. * Organic chemists in the farseeing run rejected vitalism and embraced mechanism, accepting that the same physical and chemical laws govern all inbred phenomena including the forgees of life. * Organic chemistry was redefined as the study of carbon compounds regardless of their origin. Organisms do maturate the majority of organic compounds. * The laws of chemistry apply to inorganic and organic compounds alike. impression 4. 2 Carbon atoms can form diverse molecules by bonding to quadruplet other atoms *With a total of 6 electrons, a carbon atom has 2 in the first electron call down and 4 in the second shell. * Carbon has smaller tendency to form ionic bonds by losing or gaining 4 electrons to complete its valency shell. * Instead, carbon normally completes its valence shell by sharing electrons with other atoms in 4 covalent bonds. This tetravalence by carbon makes large, complex molecules possible. * When carbon forms covalent bonds with quaternion other atoms, they be arranged at the corners of an imaginary tetrahedron with bond angles of 109. 5. * In molecules with multiple carbons, every carbon bonded to four other atoms has a tetrahedral effect. * However, when ii carbon atoms be joined by a mental image bond, all bonds around those carbons be in the same plane and urinate a flat, three-dimensional structure. * The three-dimensional shape of an organic molecule determines its function. The electron conformation of carbon makes it capable of forming covalent bonds with many an(prenominal) contrastive elements. * The valences of carbon and its partners can be viewed as the building code that governs the computer architecture of organic molecules. *In carbon dioxide, one carbon atom forms both dual bonds with twain distinguishable type O atoms. * In the structural formula, O=C=O, each line represents a pair of sh be electrons. This correspondence completes the valence shells of all atoms in the molecule. * While CO2 can be classified as either organic or inorganic, its importance to the living world is clear. CO2 is the source of carbon for all organic molecules found in organisms. It is usually fixed into organic molecules by the process of photosynthesis. * Urea, CO(NH2)2, is another simple organic molecule in which each atom forms covalent bonds to complete its valence shell. Variation in carbon forms contributes to the diversity of organic molecules. * Carbon chains form the physiques of most organic molecules. * The fleshs vary in length and may be straight, branched, or arranged in closed rings. *The carbon skeletons may include echo bonds. Atoms of other elements can be bonded to the atoms of the carbon skeleton. * Hydrocarbons are organic molecules that consist of only carbon and hydrogen atoms. * Hydrocarbons are the major component of petroleum, a dodo fuel that consists of the partially decomposed remains of organisms that lived millions of days ago. * Fats are biological molecules that discombobulate long hydrocarbon tails connect to a nonhydrocarbon component. * rock oil and fat are hydrophobic compounds that cannot dismiss in water because of their many unionised carbon-to-hydrogen bonds. Isomers are compounds that have the same molecular formula but several(predicate) structures and, therefore, different chemical properties. * For example, butane and isobutane have the same molecular formula, C4H10, but butane has a straight skeleton and isobutane has a branched skeleton. * The two butanes are structural isomers, molecules that have the same molecular formula but differ in the covalent arrangement of atoms. * Geometric isomers are compounds with the same covalent partnerships that differ in the spatial arrangement of atoms around a carboncarbon double bond. The double bond does not allow atoms to scatter freely around the bond axis. *The biochemistry of muckle involves a light-induced change in the structure of rhodopsin in the retina from one geometric isomer to another. * Enantiomers are molecules that are reflect images of each other. * Enantiomers are possible when four different atoms or separates of atoms are bonded to a carbon. * In this case, the four root words can be arranged in space in two different ways that are mirror images. * They are like left-handed and right-handed versions of the molecule. * Usually one is biologically active, composition the other is inactive. Even subtle structural differences in two enantiomers have grave working(a) significance because of emergent properties from precise arrangements of atoms. * one(a) enantiomer of the drug thalidomide reduce morning sickness, the desired effect, but the other isomer caused severe birth defects. *The L-dopa isomer is an efficacious treatment of Parkinsons disease, but the D-dopa isomer is inactive. Concept 4. 3 Functional pigeonholings are the split of molecules voluminous in chemical reactions * The components of organic molecules that are most commonly involved in chemical reactions are cognise as in operation(p) concourses. If we consider hydrocarbons to be the simplest organic molecules, we can view functiona l companys as attachments that replace one or more of the hydrogen atoms bonded to the carbon skeleton of the hydrocarbon. * Each functional group behaves systematically from one organic molecule to another. * The number and arrangement of functional groups help damp each molecule its unique properties. * As an example, the basic structure of testosterone (a male excite hormone) and estradiol (a female sex hormone) is the same. * some(prenominal) are steroids with four fused carbon rings, but they differ in the functional groups attached to the rings. These functional groups interact with different targets in the body. * There are sextette functional groups that are most substantial to the chemistry of life hydroxyl, carbonyl, carboxyl, amino group, sulfhydryl, and phosphate groups. * both are hydrophilic and increase the solvability of organic compounds in water. * In a hydroxyl group (OH), a hydrogen atom forms a wintry covalent bond with an atomic number 8 atom, which f orms a wintry covalent bond to the carbon skeleton. * Because of these polar covalent bonds, hydroxyl groups increase the solubility of organic molecules. Organic compounds with hydroxyl groups are alcohols, and their names typically end in -ol. * A carbonyl group (>CO) consists of an oxygen atom joined to the carbon skeleton by a double bond.* If the carbonyl group is on the end of the skeleton, the compound is an aldehyde. * If the carbonyl group is within the carbon skeleton, then the compound is a ketone. * Isomers with aldehydes versus ketones have different properties. * A carboxyl group (COOH) consists of a carbon atom with a double bond to an oxygen atom and a single bond to the oxygen of a hydroxyl group. * Compounds with carboxyl groups are carboxylic acids. A carboxyl group acts as an acid because the combined electronegativities of the two adjacent oxygen atoms increase the dissociation of hydrogen as an ion (H+). * An amino group (NH2) consists of a nitrogen atom bonded to two hydrogen atoms and the carbon skeleton. * Organic compounds with amino groups are amines. * The amino group acts as a base because the amino group can pick up a hydrogen ion (H+) from the solution. * Amino acids, the building folds of proteins, have amino and carboxyl groups. *A sulfhydryl group (SH) consists of a sulfur atom bonded to a hydrogen atom and to the backbone. This group resembles a hydroxyl group in shape. * Organic molecules with sulfhydryl groups are thiols. * Two sulfhydryl groups can interact to help stabilize the structure of proteins. * A phosphate group (OPO32? ) consists of a phosphorus atom bound to four oxygen atoms (three with single bonds and one with a double bond). * A phosphate group connects to the carbon backbone via one of its oxygen atoms. * inorganic phosphate groups are anions with two negative charges, as two protons have dissociated from the oxygen atoms. * One function of phosphate groups is to transfer nada between organic molec ules.Adenosine triphosphate, or ATP, is the particular energy-transferring molecule in living cells. These are the chemical elements of life. * Living matter consists chiefly of carbon, oxygen, hydrogen, and nitrogen, with smaller amounts of sulfur and phosphorus. * These elements are relate by strong covalent bonds. * Carbon, with its four covalent bonds, is the basic building block in molecular architecture. * The great diversity of organic molecules with their special properties emerges from the unique arrangement of the carbon skeleton and the functional groups attached to the skeleton.